Blogs

The period we call the Iron Age in Wales began in approximately 800 BC, after new settlers began arriving in Britain—the Celts. These more advanced people developed iron weapons, better tools, and new methods, such as building hill forts for dwellings and defense. 

Though first arriving around 1,000 BC, by about 600 BC, the Celtic tribes emigrating to Britain from Europe had well-established themselves on the island. Iron Age Wales was in full swing. As the Bronze Age drew to a close, people still utilized some bronze weapons and tools, but the use of iron became more prevalent. The Celts absorbed much of the existing Beaker culture and likely clashed with and eliminated some of them. Those who joined the Celtic society or lived alongside it for a while learned blacksmithing (iron craft) from the newcomers. 

So, who were these newcomers to Britain, and why was their arrival so significant? Research from archeological finds has shown that the Celts weren’t a distinct genetic group but more of a loosely-knitted collection of tribal societies that once covered much of Europe. They had no written language but did share the common tongue of Continental Celtic. Once they got to the British Isles, this language developed into Insular Celtic. Insular Celtic split into two groups: Gaelic and Brythonic, the latter of which eventually gave us Cymraeg (Welsh).

In addition to their language being the distant ancestor of modern Welsh, another contribution of the Celts to Wales was their fortifications. The Celts lived in roundhouses inside hill forts, which provided better protection and defense. Over 700 hill fort ruins still exist in Cymru today! The tribes also brought better ways of farming with stronger, improved tools over those of wood, such as an iron plow and other implements. These included spades, sickles, scythes, axes, forks, and hedge tools. But that isn’t all. The Celts brought even more changes to what is now Wales, and their art, structures, and wild spirit are still very much with us, which we’ll dive into below.

What time period was the Iron Age in the UK? 

The Iron Age in Britain ran from roughly 800 BC to 43 AD. While people in Britain used iron as early as 1,000 BC with the arrival of the first Celts, people didn’t widely use it until later in 500 – 400 BC. The period ended in 43 AD with the Roman invasion. That began the period known as Roman Britain, or in the case of Cymru, Roman Wales. 

For dominating a period of less than 1,000 years, the Celts made a massive impact. Even over 2,000 years later, we can still find many remains of Iron Age Wales hill forts. You can also find the ruins of many Iron Age settlements in the UK in England, Scotland, and Ireland. Maiden Castle (perhaps from Celtic “mai-dun,” which means a “great hill”) in Dorset is the largest hill fort in Britain. The Celts constructed it around 600 BC. Another major settlement is Traprain Law in East Lothian, Scotland. Covering approximately 40 acres at its peak, the Votadini tribe occupied it.

Who lived in Wales in the Iron Age? 

Mostly, it was the Celts who occupied Wales during the Iron Age. However, that happened gradually from about 1,000 to 600 BC as the Celts absorbed or reduced the existing Beaker population of Britain. By about 600 BC, Beaker culture had ended, and the new Celtic societies had taken over.    

Were the Celts from the Iron Age?

The Celts brought the Iron Age to Britain, so we strongly associate them with the Iron Age. So, yes, they are from the Iron Age in this sense. However, Celtic culture on the European continent actually began earlier than the Iron Age in Wales. They got their start as early as 1,400 BC in the Bronze Age. Archaeologists believe the inception of Celtic society was in the Danube area of Central Europe. So, the complete answer to the question is that, no, the Celts weren’t from the Iron Age. They came from the Late Bronze Age and lived through the Iron Age. 

Farming and Tools

As tribes gradually shifted from using bronze to iron for crafting tools, the Celts contributed a remarkable innovation in farming: the iron plow. Before the iron plow, the tool people used for tilling a field was basically a pointed stick that two harnessed animals pulled. The plow wasn’t very durable and only worked well in light, well-drained soils generally found in upland areas. The iron plow made it possible to cultivate the rich soils found in the lowlands. The only drawback to this valuable new invention was that it took a team of eight oxen to pull it. For that reason, the Celts made their fields long and narrow. This way, farmers could turn the team of animals as few times as possible. 

The Celts in Wales grew wheat as their primary and most important crop. They also grew oats and barley. Tribes also continued to hunt and gather. Depending on where they lived, they could forage for nettles, mushrooms, berries, nuts, and crab apples. They also kept bees for honey and mead making. (Fun fact: the Beaker folk were the first in Britain to make mead.) Welsh Celts raised pigs, cows, and sheep, and they hunted deer and boar. 

Housing and Settlements

Like the Beaker People, the Celts still lived in a type of roundhouse. Tribes constructed their roundhouses of different materials depending on what was available in the area. For example, they often used wicker for the walls, but in some areas, they used stone if there weren’t a lot of trees nearby. They made the roofs from thatch. People commonly made thatch from straw, but they could also make it from reeds or other plant material—again, like the walls, it depended on the region of Cymru and what grew nearby. 

The most significant change in housing and settlements was the construction of hill forts. A hill fort is generally a walled hut village or similarly well-fortified settlement on a hill or other advantageous land. The oldest hill fort in Wales that we know of is the one found in Dinorben. It dates back to about 1,000 BC. By about 700 BC,   Welsh tribes   were building hill forts as standard practice. The Celts often built hill forts on high ground, such as a hill, cliff, or promontory (high ground over water). 

Usually, people built a stone wall around the settlement. The wall may have had a wooden portion above the stone with a flat surface where guards, archers, etc., could walk and protect the village. Like the roundhouses, the construction of hill forts varied slightly by region. In southwest Wales, tribes often used a ditch and dyke structure to enclose the settlement by the sea on three sides. 

Weapons and War

The Celts loved fighting and engaging in warfare. While they were skilled warriors, their belligerent nature ultimately got the best of them, as the tribes never unified. They were too busy fighting one another! But I digress. 

In Iron Age Wales, the Celts made iron swords, spears, axes, and shields. The change from bronze to iron weapons meant better defense, as iron was slightly stronger. It also has the interesting property that the more times one repairs it, the stronger it gets. An unfortunate drawback is that iron tends to rust. However, iron was more widely available than bronze. Tribes could find it just about anywhere, giving them more independence with resources for weapons.

While the Celts didn’t invent the chariot, they did bring its use to Britain. (In case you were wondering, chariots were first known to be used in northern Syria by the Hurrians, the ancestors of modern Armenians, in 1,700 BC.) Evidence shows that by the late Iron Age, Celtic chariots were widely used in warfare. 

They also improved the saddle by giving it four pommels (the raised part like those on the front of Western saddles): two in front and two behind. The advantage of this was that it helped prevent a warrior from getting knocked off his horse so easily.

How the Celts Governed Their Tribes

Like the Beaker People who occupied the land before them, Celtic tribes in Wales were usually governed by a warrior king, chieftain, or sometimes a queen. However, each tribe had its own ways of structuring its leadership. At first, they elected their leaders. Rulers didn’t come to their status by birth as they did in later times in the Welsh kingdoms.

A village in Wales usually consisted of an extended family, like a clan. These clans were part of a larger tribe. Children were usually fostered out to other family members rather than being raised by their birth parents. The tribes traded goods with other tribes, as well as the peoples of Europe—after all, the Celtic tribes emigrated from the continent, so it makes sense that they retained valuable connections. 

Women in Celtic tribes were treated more equally to men than in many parts of the world at the time. They often participated in activities that, in other cultures, were restricted to men only. For example, the Romans gave accounts of Celtic women hunting, fighting alongside the men, advising in the running of the village (or, in some cases, being the one running it), owning property, and choosing their husbands. Research from burial sites has pointed to evidence that the early Celts may have traced their ancestry through the female line rather than the male. This practice changed at some point during the Iron Age to the patriarchal structure in later Welsh society. 

Religion and Burials

While we don’t know a great deal about the religion of the Bronze Age Beaker People, we know a bit more about the Celts’ religious beliefs. They were polytheists who believed in many gods and goddesses. The deities worshipped also varied by region and tribe. The Celts believed that spirits lived in everything—animals, plants, weapons, tools, everyday household items, and even stones, lakes, mountains, and streams. 

Celtic Head Hunters?

The Celts of Iron Age Wales greatly respected the human head as the seat of spirituality to the point that they would take enemies’ heads in battle and display them. In this way, perhaps they were taking some of the slain person’s power for themselves. Tribes or individuals also sacrificed to deities by leaving valuable items in that god or goddess’s domain, such as a lake or cave. Roman accounts also tell of human sacrifices to the gods. Human remains found in bogs back up this claim. 

Druids

Druids were not only the Celts’ priests but also healers (kind of like Iron Age doctors), teachers, advisors, and judges of sorts. They held very high authority, possibly higher than the king/chieftain. They also had their own schools where they passed down secret religious teachings and the oral traditions necessary to the lay people. 

Diverse Burial Styles

In Iron Age Wales, we see the round barrows of the Beakers transition to the diverse burial practices of the Celts. They made mounds covered with stones in some places. In Wales, this structure is called a “cairn.” They also performed cave burials, constructed burial chambers like people from the Neolithic period, or continued to use round barrows. Practices varied by region and tribe. For instance, some tribes cremated their dead before burial, and others did not. 

You can find a listing of 53 burial chambers from the Bronze and Iron Age in Wales at the   People’s Collection Wales . 

What is the oldest settlement in Wales? 

A Neolithic settlement in Llanfaethlu, a village in northwest Ynys Môn (Isle of Anglesey), is the oldest known in Wales. It dates back almost 6,000 years. Archeologists have found the remains of four Neolithic houses at this site. 

Even though the wild and painted Celts are no longer with us in body, their tenacity, strength, and love of their land endure in modern Cymru. The unofficial Welsh National Anthem, “ Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau” (Land of My Fathers ), indeed conjures the spirit of the   ancient Welsh people   who came before and forged such a proud nation. 

Filmmaker and photographer Andy Pilsbury   and the Gaia Foundation have released " Llafur Ni ," a documentary about Pembrokeshire organic farmer Gerald Miles and his successful work, with farmer Iwan Evans Coedfadre and musician Owen Shiers , to bring Ceirch Du (black oats) back back to Wales.

Once common, black oats had become a difficult to find "lost crop" until Miles and Katie Hastings , regional coordinator for the Gaia Foundation’s UK Seed Sovereignty Programme, formed Llafur Ni, and recruited other farmers in Wales to work to bring them back.

'When Shiers first heard Miles was searching for black oats, he thought the description of the shiny grains sounded similar to a crop he had seen growing near his home in Machynlleth. The crop belonged to Evans, who Shiers knew through playing folk music. When Miles arrived in Machynlleth, for the first time in decades he saw black oats shining in the field. Hastings believes Evans was the very last farmer growing them. “We didn’t realise how rare we were,” says Evans.' Search for the holy grain: lost Welsh crops offer hope for future varieties

Welsh artist Miranda Whall visited Iwan Evans Coedfadre's farm to watch, and help, him and Owen Shiers thresh black oats, and you can hear an audio recording of that process.

These four best books about Wales are all distinctly different, yet each one is a rich and immersive journey in its own way. After choosing from The Mabinogion, Pigeon, A History of Wales, and Owen, prop up the pillows and make yourself comfy because you might be up past your bedtime.

Each of the four best books about Wales listed below will give you a deeper look at this fascinating country and make you feel closer to it. Why is Wales so important? Cymru (Wales) is important for retaining its unique Welsh culture and traditions. Some customs are more modern, while others trace back to the Celts and even earlier to the Beaker folk (like cawl!). Wales also boasts breathtakingly beautiful castle ruins and wilderness. 

In addition to all of that, Welsh is the oldest language in the British Isles that has been spoken continuously since its inception. It’s a Celtic language that began as Insular Celtic, then became Brythonic, and eventually, with many changes, became Cymraeg (Welsh) as we know it today. Wales has also kept certain mystical elements from its folklore, some richly preserved in The Mabinogion. 

What is the most famous thing about Wales? Wales is famous for many things, but some of the most notable are its beautiful flag with the red dragon on a green field, having the most castles per square mile anywhere in the world, and the Welsh language, which is the oldest in the UK. You might be interested in learning that Cymraeg (Welsh) traces back to its Brythonic beginnings around 4,000 years ago. 

What Welsh town is famous for books?

Hay-on-Wye (known as Hay or “Y Gelli” in Welsh) is also called “Town of Books.” Located in Powys, which is situated in Mid Wales and borders England, it dates back to the Middle Ages.

Here are the four best books about Wales in no particular order. They are all completely different, and each is excellent for a unique reason.

Best Books About Wales: A History of Wales by John Davis

Undoubtedly, it is one of the best Welsh history books in existence. While it isn’t a concise history of Wales and is not for the casual reader, it’s well worth the time spent immersed in its pages for the author’s expert knowledge and detailed descriptions.  

A History of Wales   takes the reader on a colorful journey that begins in Wales’ distant past in the Ice Age. From there, Davis takes you forward from a time when woolly mammoths roamed the frozen plains through the Beaker culture to the days of the Celts and their hill forts. He explores the Roman Occupation, the Reformation, and the Industrial Revolution. You’ll learn how mining, with its hardships and toil, became a part of Welsh culture. The book shows how the Welsh people have been able to endure and keep their spirit no matter the changes that come their way.

Davis’ incredible book also explains how the English conquered and subjugated the Welsh in several stages after the Normans had already partially conquered Wales. The first occurred when Edward I defeated Llywelyn ap Gruffudd (“Llywelyn the Last”) in 1282. Two hundred and fifty years later, Henry VIII’s Act of Union incorporated Wales into England and made English its official language. The Glorious Revolution of 1688 saw the Catholic King James II overthrown and changed England from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional monarchy. New commercial opportunities opened that would eventually lead to the Industrial Revolution. This more modern era brought good and bad changes for Wales, especially regarding mining. However, for a time, the country became a leading producer of coal, copper, slate, and iron.

What makes A History of Wales one of the best books about Wales? 

Davis isn’t overly sentimental but tells it like it is. Yet, he still succeeds in portraying the Cymry (Welsh people) as the proud, strong folks they are. He also goes into more recent politics, including Plaid Cymru, a nationalist party. One of their main goals is to make Wales an independent state within the European Union. In   A History of Wales , you’ll also find many little-known facts and a few interesting rumors. For example, America may have been discovered by a Welshman, Prince Madog, in the 15th century. 

Amazon US

Amazon UK

Novels About Wales: Pigeon by Alys Conran

Pigeon   is a heartbreaking and beautifully written story about hardship. While not a young adult novel due to some of the mature issues it deals with, it’s definitely a coming-of-age story. The story is set in a small Welsh town near Snowdonia National Park in North Wales. The main character, Pigeon (not a nickname but his real one), loves storytelling and words in general. The story centers around him and his best friend, Iola. They live in their own make-believe world to try to escape the realities of growing up in broken homes. Iola was raised by her older sister after her mother and grandmother died. Pigeon has it even worse. He’s been living in the garden shed ever since his abusive stepfather began making life at home unbearable. 

What makes Pigeon one of the best books about Wales? 

Although a fiction novel,   Pigeon   paints a picture of the challenging dynamic between the Welsh and the English. Despite Welsh being Pigeon’s first language, we learn how he sometimes has a complex relationship with his native tongue and his identity. The story also shows us some of the challenges in modern Wales.

Another aspect of the book that stands out to me is how it shows the power of our words and what they can do, both good and bad. Stories and imagination can heal and inspire; sometimes, our tales can have devastating consequences.  

This poignant novel won the Wales Book of the Year award in 2017 and has even been made into a play. Not many have heard of it outside of Wales, making it an underrated book—another gem waiting for you to read it and discover a brilliant author! The book is also   available in Welsh on Amazon UK .

Amazon US

Amazon UK

Welsh Edition

Books on Welsh Mythology

The Mabinogion (Oxford World’s Classics) Illustrated Edition by Sioned Davies

If you want to learn about Welsh mythology, reading   The Mabinogion   is the best way to start. If you’ve never heard of this and don’t know what the title means or what it is, I’ll explain. The book is a famous collection of eleven mythology stories from Wales’ past. Although compiled in the Middle Ages, the tales of gods, goddesses, and folklore pre-date Christianity. 

The book’s title is from the word “Mabinogi,” which comes from the word “mab.” In earlier days, it meant “youth” or “boyhood.” However, over time, it evolved to mean “tale of a hero’s boyhood” and eventually was shortened to simply “a tale.” Lady Charlotte Guest, the first to translate the tales into English in the mid-nineteenth century, incorrectly called the entire body of work “The Mabinogion,” thinking that “Mabinogion” was the plural of “Mabinogi.” 

We still don’t know who the original authors of   The Mabinogion   were. These anonymous writers gave us 11 tales comprising the book’s four branches. The four branches are Pwyll, Branwen, Manawydan, and Math. These are the names of the “main characters,” if you will, the people whose lives form the foundation of the world depicted within. You’ll learn of Gwydion, the shape-shifter who brings a maiden named Blodeuwedd to life from flowers; of dragons, witches, and giants; of Arthurian romance, kings and heroes, quests to the Otherworld and back again; stories of love, revenge, and royalty. Through these tales of Celtic mythology, we also see the Welsh people fighting to keep their independence as a nation.  

What makes The Mabinogion one of the best books about Wales?

Davies’ translation is lively and engaging, and she formatted the book in shorter paragraphs. She’s also included notes in the back that explain specific phrases and give the reader context. A lot has changed in the many centuries since the stories were first told by the ancient Welsh. Davies ensures that modern readers can understand and enjoy the tales just as they did.   The Mabinogion   also preserves the pagan mythology of ancient Wales. It’s raw, powerful, and connected to all of nature, giving us a glimpse of how the Celts viewed life. While it may not be precise to classify it among books about Wales’ history, it still shows us aspects of it. The stories let us travel back in time, giving us a connection to the past we can feel.

Amazon US

Amazon UK

The Mabinogion in Welsh

Owen – Book One of the Tudor Trilogy by Tony Riches

One last book in case you’re looking for a fiction novel with romance! Welsh servant Owen Tudor falls in love with the English queen in 1422. The stunning Catherine of Valois, the warrior king Henry V’s widow, is lonely, and her son Henry VI, the future king, exhibits symptoms of the family’s insanity. Owen has to decide if he’s willing to sacrifice everything to keep her safe as the nation teeters on the verge of civil war. In   Owen   by Tony Riches, we find out how the Tudors created a dynasty and altered British history.

Why is Owen one of the best books about Wales?

It’s a great way to learn about some of the true history of the   Tudor dynasty   through fiction. The story is told from Owen’s perspective. He’s fallen in status after losing his rights as a Welsh nobleman’s son. Owen develops a strong romantic attachment to the Queen despite having an affair with Juliette, the Queen’s maid. After the young Prince Henry departs the household to begin training for the throne, Catherine notices the loyal Owen and starts showing him affection. They have a covert wedding and settle in the sleepy village of Much Hadham (about forty miles north of London). While filled with turmoil and complicated matters of state, the book also shows the romance between the couple and Owen’s early life. Definitely worth a read!

Amazon US

Amazon UK

...

After the Romans withdrew from Wales, the   Welsh tribes   became more autonomous. Now free from outside government, chieftains ruled over small parts of Cymru. Territories became kingdoms. Gruffudd ap Llewelyn was the only ruler of all the ancient kings of Wales who united the country as a whole.

The story of the ancient kings of Wales begins with the Roman departure from Britain in 383 AD. Celtic tribal chieftains, freed from the yoke of Roman rule, fought amongst themselves to keep or establish control over their lands and defend their territory from invaders. These territories eventually became kingdoms. 

The most important of these realms were Ceredigion (later known as Gwynedd), Seisyllwg (later Powys), Dyfed (later Deheubarth), and Morgannwg (formed of Glywysing and Gwent). Welsh kings and princes ruled their kingdoms until the Middle Ages when King Edward I of England overthrew Wales’ last ruler, Llewelyn ap Gruffydd, in 1282—over 200 years after Gruffudd ap Llewelyn’s death.

Known as “Llewelyn the Last,” like some other Welsh rulers, Llewelyn ap Gruffydd went by the title of “Prince” and not “King.” Why? The truth is that the Welsh used both titles at different times and for different reasons. One reason may have been to distinguish themselves from other independent rulers in Wales and set themselves apart from the English king. After Edward I conquered Llewelyn and gained control of the land, Edward gave his son the title “Prince of Wales.” Since then, the heir apparent to the English and British throne has always inherited the title. 

Another reason Welsh rulers often used the title of “Prince” instead of “King” was that the kingdoms weren’t united—there was no “King of the Britons.” A single ruler seldom led them, and when he did, it wasn’t for long. The last Welsh ruler to hold the title of King was Gruffudd ap Llewelyn in the 11th century. Today, we sometimes refer to him as “the first and last king of Wales.” Not only did he unify Wales, but he also conquered some of the border lands the English had previously controlled. When Gruffudd was killed in 1063, the remaining Welsh leaders called themselves princes again. 

While we hear more about   Llewelyn ap Gruffydd   in the 13th century, the last ruler of Wales before the English subdued it, Gruffudd ap Llewelyn (200 years earlier) was a key figure in history as the last of the ancient Welsh kings. By that, we should clarify that we’re referring to the title used more than how the rulers functioned. The princes in ancient Wales acted very much like kings in their capacities. They often ruled subkingdoms, smaller kingdoms within larger ones such as Gwynedd or Powys.

Gruffudd ruled as the King of Wales from 1055 – 1063. Something worth noting here is that Gruffudd’s given name also frequently appears with the spelling “Gruffydd.” In this article and throughout this website, we’re using “Gruffudd” as the spelling. Michael Davies and Sean Davies, the authors of the exceptional book   The Last King of Wales: Gruffudd ap Llywelyn, c. 1013-1063 , have listed the king’s name as above.

The Life of Gruffudd ap Llewelyn in the Ancient History of Wales

Historians believe Gruffudd was born a prince in 1010 or 1011 AD in Rhuddlan, in the Kingdom of Powys, North Wales. Although history hasn’t left us much about Gruffudd’s childhood, we know a bit from the stories of Walter Map, a writer and the courtier of King Henry II of England. Map said that Gruffudd was slow, downcast, and generally without direction in his youth. However, later in life, he became ambitious and took on responsibilities. It didn’t take long until his aspirations soared higher than anyone could have guessed!

In 1039, after Iago ab Idwal, the King of Gwynedd, was killed by his own men, Gruffudd took the lead and became king of both Powys and Gwynedd. He then took on the Saxons of Mercia, the neighboring kingdom to Welsh borders. He and his fighters achieved a victory in the battle of Rhyd-y-groes on the Severn River. As the Welsh kingdoms had been fighting the Saxons for hundreds of years, Gruffudd gained favor immediately among the   Welsh people . 

The Welsh Marches

Gruffudd’s victory over Mercia made the borderland between Wales and England known as the “Welsh Marches” safe for his people. Not only did this bring the Welsh more security, but it instantly boosted Gruffudd’s status and influence with his subjects. Quelling the Saxons gave him the support he needed to take the other Welsh kingdoms by force or bring them under his rule through diplomacy. By about 1055, Gruffudd ap Llewelyn had united all of Wales. 

Alliance with Mercia 

A critical reason that Gruffudd succeeded in solidifying his rule of the Welsh kingdoms was that he allied with Aelfgar, the Saxon King of Mercia. As Mercia was a neighboring English kingdom, this alliance only increased the security Gruffudd achieved with his victory over the Marches. How was this possible, especially since Wales and England had been enemies for centuries, and it was the Mercians who Gruffudd had defeated at Rhyd-y-groes? Aelfgar had his own enemies he needed help with—the Godwine family in Northumbria. 

When Aelfgar was exiled, he recruited an Irish mercenary fleet. Gruffudd also gathered a vast army, and together, he and Aelfgar attacked the Saxons and Normans under Earl Ralf. With Gruffudd and Aelfgar’s forces victorious, they set the town of Hereford afire. Aelfgar was later able to return to his own lands. Gruffudd then married Aelfgar’s daughter, Ealdgyth. The alliance of Gruffudd’s Wales and Aelfgar’s Mercia eventually culminated in a peace treaty with Edward the Confessor of Wessex in 1056. 

The Death of Gruffudd ap Llewelyn

Unfortunately, Aelfgar’s death late in 1062 gave discontent members of the Godwine family the opportunity they’d been looking for. Harold Godwinesson, the Earl of Wessex, attacked Gruffudd’s court without warning. He then turned some of Gruffudd’s own compatriots against him. Not all the princes and other lords of Wales agreed with Gruffudd’s rule, so Harold used these rivalries to his advantage. In 1063, Gruffudd ap Llewelyn, the last king of Wales, was slain by his own men. The traitors then sent the earl Gruffudd’s head.

Gruffudd’s death left England and Wales vulnerable to the Norman rule that soon followed. For a brief time, of all the ancient kings of Wales, he had brought his country together in a way like no one before him. Gruffudd may have given the people of his time more than any other leader had. He brought vision, identity, and alliance with Anglo-Saxon England. We’ll always remember Gruffud ap Llewelyn’s story among famous Welsh kings and as a founding father of Cymru.

Ancient Kings of Wales in Order

Here is an ancient kings of Wales timeline showing the leaders of the kingdoms in Cymru in the order they ruled. While we don’t know the exact dates for many of these kings and princes, we do have a good idea of their approximate times of leadership based on historical records. Larger kingdoms, like Gwynedd, often had a king with princes ruling over sub-kingdoms within it. This king of Wales list includes some rulers of petty kingdoms, cantrefs, and commotes (subdivisions of cantrefs).

Kingdom of Gwynedd

Kingdom of Dunoding (Sub-kingdom)

Kingdom of Rhufoniog (Sub-kingdom)

Kingdom of Dogfeiling (Sub-kingdom)

Kingdom of Rhos (Sub-kingdom)

Ancient Kings of Wales: Kingdom of Dyfed

Kingdom of Morgannwg

Kingdom of Ewyas (Sub-kingdom)

The Kingdom of Ewyas (also spelled “Ewias”) was a regional kingdom existing in what is now Wales and Herefordshire, England.

Kingdom of Ergyng (Sub-kingdom)

Kingdom of Glywysing (Sub-kingdom)

Cantref of Gwynllŵg

Gwynllŵg was a cantref (a medieval land division similar to a county) in Glamorgan (Gwent).

Kingdom of Gwent (Sub-kingdom)

The Kingdom of Morgannwg (Sub-kingdom)

The Kingdom of Morgannwg was sometimes an independent kingdom, and at other times, it was formed from the two Kingdoms of Morgannwg and Gwent.

The Kingdom of Ceredigion

Kingdom of Powys

Kingdom of Pengwern (Petty Kingdom)

Pengwern was a petty kingdom located in what is now the Midlands. It was possibly near the Wrekin, a hill in Shropshire, England.

Kingdom of Brycheiniog

Ancient Kings of Wales: Welsh Regional Kingdoms

All of Wales

North Wales

Gwynedd and Powys

South Wales

Cantref of Buellt and Commote of Gwrtheyrnion

Note: A “commote” is a territorial division under a cantref.

Deheubarth and Gwynedd

Regions: West and Northwest of Wales.

Ceredigion, Meirionnydd, Gwynedd

Regions: Kingdom of Gwynedd when it encompassed a larger area, including Ceredigion (Deheubarth), Meirionnydd, and Dyffryn Clwyd, making the king’s realm Northwest and West Wales. He also ruled Rhos and Rhufoniog.

Deheubarth, Gwynedd, Powys  

Regions: North and Mid to Southwest Wales.

Ergyng, Gwent

Region: Southeast of Wales

Glywysing, Gwent

Region: Southeast of Wales

Gwent, Morgannwg

Regions: South and Southeast of Wales

Who Is the King of Wales Now?

No one has held the title “King of Wales” since Gruffudd ap Llewelyn. However, Charles III held the title “Prince of Wales” for 64 years. He acceded to the British throne on 8 September 2022, upon the death of his mother, Queen Elizabeth II. Since then, Charles III has been the king of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The UK consists of England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland (but not the Republic of Ireland).

If you’d like to see an ancient kings of Wales map, this one on Britain Express shows the   major kingdoms of Cymru from 500 to 700 AD .

Welsh love spoons, slate gifts, and Welsh Lady dolls are heartwarming keepsakes that can last a lifetime. Knowing the history behind these three popular Welsh gifts will make them even more special to you, whether you’re the giver or the receiver. 

Three popular Welsh gifts given throughout the years in Wales are Welsh love spoons, Welsh slate gifts, and gifts featuring the Welsh Lady—a woman wearing the traditional Welsh costume of a woolen dress with an apron, neckerchief, stockings, red cloak, and tall black hat. Before the early 1800s, Wales didn’t have a national dress for women. We’ll explore its origin and the woman who popularized it. 

Did you know that love spoons aren’t unique to Wales? However, crafters of the love spoon in Cymru brought their own style, skillfulness, and attention to detail virtually unmatched anywhere else, truly bringing the Welshness factor into what we know as Welsh love spoons. 

The history of slate in Wales goes back over 1,800 years. People in North Wales began quarrying slate in Roman times. When the Industrial Revolution swung into high gear in Wales in the 1800s, the Welsh slate industry boomed. Slate in Wales is around 500 million years old and is the highest quality worldwide. A gift of slate from Cymru is a gift of the land itself. 

The Welsh Lady (Welsh National Costume) 

You may have seen small dolls in Wales dressed in a particular manner or an image of a woman wearing a tall, black hat painted on ornaments or other decorative items. This woman has become known as the “Welsh Lady.” She represents the Welsh National Dress, the traditional clothing women in rural parts of Cymru wore in the early 1800s. 

What does this traditional costume consist of, and why has it become a symbol of Welsh identity? The outfit is comprised of a loose-fitting dress (also called a “bedgown”) made of wool and worn over a corset. Underneath this, ladies wore an undergarment called a “petticoat,” which is a shorter skirt and was usually also made of wool. Women wore aprons over their bedgowns and also put on knitted stockings, a neckerchief, and a red cloak. They finished off the look with a tall black hat. The iconic black hat has become known as the “Welsh Hat.”

Before the 19th century, Wales did not have a specific cultural dress, although women who lived in remote parts of Cymru did wear wool dresses. Ladies drew inspiration for their gowns from 18th-century fashions, but beyond that, they didn’t have a national costume. 

How Did the “Welsh Lady” Identity Turn into Popular Welsh Dolls?

Augusta Hall (born Augusta Waddington [March 21, 1802 – January 17, 1896]) popularized the idea of a Welsh national costume. Also known as “Lady Llanover,” as her family was from Llanover, Monmouthshire, she was well educated and had traveled all over Britain and Europe. In 1823, Lady Llanover married Benjamin Hall, an MP (member of parliament) for 22 years. Among his other contributions, he’s remembered as the person in government who oversaw the construction of Big Ben in Westminster. Yes, if you were wondering if the clock is nicknamed after Benjamin Hall, indeed it is! Its official name is “Elizabeth Tower,” after the Queen. 

Lady Llanover was busy with her own worthy endeavors of promoting Welsh folk culture and the Welsh language. She was one of the leading proponents of the triple harp as Wales’ national instrument. She also ensured that Welsh was taught in two schools and assisted in starting a women’s Welsh language magazine called “Y Gymraes” (“The Welsh Woman”).

Lady Llanover was also responsible for forming the foundations of the Welsh national dress. At the Eisteddfod in Cardiff in 1834, she submitted an essay under her bardic name, “Gwenynen Gwent.” (A “bardic name” is a fictitious name used by artists and poets in Cornwall, Brittany, and Wales.) The essay was entitled “The Advantages Resulting from the Preservation of the Welsh Language and National Costumes of Wales.” It won Best Essay in the competition. Her dress ideas took hold, and women accepted them throughout the country. One might say that Lady Llanover was the original Welsh Lady! While the traditional costume is now only worn on St. David’s Day or by performers at eisteddfodau (festivals of music or poetry), the Welsh Lady is very much alive as a cultural symbol in art, gifts, and the cute dolls we see. 

Welsh Love Spoons 

People began giving Welsh love spoons as gifts in the 1600s. They were made either from scratch or from large wooden kitchen spoons and carved with symbols and shapes, especially on the handles. The spoons began as a token of affection that a young man would create and give to the woman he loved, hoping she would accept his offer of a relationship. While he might also give her sweets or flowers, a love spoon was a highly personalized gift and went beyond merely a beautifully crafted woodwork. For one thing, he chose what symbols to place on the spoon, conveying a message only for his beloved. Secondly, the many hours of work he put into perfecting each little detail in the gift showed his commitment to her. And finally, the craftsmanship itself showed his skill and good qualities as a potential husband. 

The Oldest Love Spoon in Wales

The custom of carving love spoons does not actually originate in Wales. They’ve been found all over Europe—especially in the Celtic areas. However, the Welsh people took this tradition and gave it their own style, creating some of the most intricate and unique love spoons in the world. The spoons carved in Cymru varied in every way, from size to the wood used to different degrees of intricacy. Each spoon was a unique creation with a separate and special meaning from every other spoon. Unfortunately, we don’t know who made the first love spoon in Wales. However, we do know of the oldest surviving love spoon from Cymru that a young suitor made in 1667. You can see it at   St. Fagan’s National Museum of History . 

Love and Marriage in Remote Parts of Wales

Another interesting aspect of the history of Welsh love spoons is that when people first began making them, couples in remote parts of Cymru rarely had a formal engagement or marriage ceremony. They merely started a relationship and later lived together as husband and wife. (This changed during the 1800s when the registry of marriages became mandatory in England and Wales.) The new wife would then proudly display her love spoon on the wall to symbolize the couple’s bond. Seen in this light, especially as many families were poor and couldn’t afford jewelry, the love spoon almost acts as a kind of wedding ring and token of their vows to one another. 

In this post about   Welsh Mother’s Day gifts , you can learn about some symbols on Welsh love spoons, their meanings, and the different types of wood used. 

Welsh Slate Gifts

What makes slate so valuable? For one thing, it can last a very long time. On a roof, it can last for over a hundred years. Of course, depending on what builders use it for, slate can last far longer than that. For example, the Bronze Age ring cairn, Bryn Cader Faner in North Wales, could be as much as 4,000 years old! Much of it remains, and you can still visit this haunting ring of stones today.

One reason slate lasts so long is its low water absorption. This quality makes it resistant to damage from frost and erosion. In addition to that, unlike some materials, slate’s color only improves with time. That means that its rich hue only deepens rather than fades. Slate is also a dense stone, which makes it withstand lots of weather without cracking easily.

Slate has always been a part of life in Wales. The ancient Welsh used it since antiquity for various purposes, including burial sites, tools, and shelter, to name a few. The more “recent” history of Welsh slate goes back over 1,800 years to when the Romans built their military forts in Britain. They constructed Segontium, a fort in Caernarfon, using slate from the quarries in North Wales. The slate was also used in building castles, such as Conwy Castle, which King Edward I built. However, it wasn’t until the advancements of the Industrial Revolution that Wales’ slate industry boomed. Wales soon became the leading slate producer in the world!

While the last slate mines closed in the 1960s, people still prize Welsh slate for its beauty, durability, and high quality. It’s used in everything from roofs to buildings to ornaments, cutting boards, and   keepsakes. As a gift, Welsh slate is a fun and unique way to connect with this intrinsic part of Wales’ past. 

More Ideas for Sharing a Love of Cymru

For other ideas for Welsh gifts, check out the following posts:

• Welsh Gifts for Him:   9 Welsh Gifts for Him That Are Thoughtful and Fun
• Welsh Terrier Gifts:   The Breed That Inspired the Cute Welsh Terrier Stuffed Animal
• Books About Wales:   7 Great Welsh Gifts for the Bookworm in Your Life
• Unusual Welsh Gifts:   5 Ways to Celebrate Memories and Connections With Unique Welsh Gifts
• Welsh Food Gifts:   7 Exciting Ideas for Giving Welsh Food Gifts
• Traditional Welsh Gifts:   7 Cute and Fun Ideas With Traditional Welsh Gifts
• Welsh Gifts for Her:   11 Welsh Mother’s Day Gifts Filled With Love and Joy

Ancient Welsh symbols trace back to the Celtic tribes of Wales, even before Welsh was spoken. They are closely tied to nature, spirits and deities, warriors and fighting, and the Otherworld. Some symbols, like the red dragon, have become well-known parts of Welsh culture in modern times.

Where do ancient Welsh symbols originate? Why are some of the traditional Welsh symbols we see today relatively new in comparison? Ancient symbols of Cyrmu come from the Celts who lived in Britain during the Iron Age. By 600 BC, they had established quite a presence on the island. They were pagans who believed in many deities intimately connected with the natural world. The Celts were also animists, which means they thought spirits lived in everything, even inanimate objects like stones or swords. These spiritual beliefs gave us the ancient Welsh symbols and their meanings.

As to the answer to the second question, when Christianity swept through Britain and replaced the earlier Celtic beliefs, symbols people held sacred also changed. Some symbols remained. Others fell away from widespread use or changed meaning. And other symbols appeared closer to modern times, such as the daffodil. The flower is closely tied to St. David, who spread Christianity throughout the Welsh tribes.

How old does something have to be to be considered “ancient?” Generally speaking, something is ancient if it is roughly 2,000 years old. However, it also depends on the subject matter. For example, in   Wales, woodland   is considered ancient if it contains trees dating back to the 1600s. In this post, we’ll cover ancient Welsh symbols that stay as close to being at least 2,000 years old or more as possible. So, as another example, the red dragon as a symbol of Wales (or Celtic tribes) traces as far back as Roman times. While it may not hit the 2,000-year mark precisely, it goes so far back that it predates the Welsh language. 

Y Ddraig Goch: The Red Dragon

One of the most well-known ancient Welsh symbols is the red dragon or “y ddraig goch” in Welsh. We see it as the emblem on the Welsh flag, and people also refer to the flag itself as “Y Ddraig Goch.” This mythological beast as a symbol of Wales dates back to the 5th century. Legend has it that the red dragon defeated the white dragon in battle (the Welsh defeated the Saxons). This story comes to us from Arthurian legend. The terms “Red Dragon” and “White Dragon” also became metaphors for the Britons (who would later become the Welsh) and the Saxons (the English), mainly as conflict persisted. 

While there is no proof that King Arthur existed (at least, not in the legendary way he is portrayed), his father, Uther Pendragon, may have been the Welsh king who brought the dragon into use as an icon. The name “Pendragon” is a Brythonic name. Brythonic is the branch of Insular Celtic that eventually evolved into Welsh, Cornish, and Breton. Pendragon means “Dragon Head” or “Chief Dragon.” 

The legendary King Uther is said to have used the red dragon symbol not only on his banner but also on the ring he wore. During Uther and Arthur’s time, the red dragon came to stand for the Britons who fought the Anglo-Saxon invaders. The twist in the story is that Uther Pendragon may have originally got the dragon symbol from the Romans, whose standards bore the symbol. The theory is that after the Romans left Britain, some tribal chieftains may have adopted dragon symbols on their own banners, and this may be what inspired Uther to use the mythological beast as his own.

The Wild Boar in Ancient Welsh Culture

The ancient Celts revered the boar, and it became one of their sacred animals. Wild boars are known to be aggressive and downright vicious. They will defend themselves to the death, seemingly without fear. The Celtic   tribes of ancient Wales   admired these qualities. The boar represented characteristics such as strength, courage, danger, and fearlessness. Warriors often wore boar skin when going into battle. They also adorned their swords, helmets, and shields with images of boars. Additionally, statues of boars graced altars and burial chambers. They seem to urge the deceased into the Otherworld with strength and courage. 

The boar is one of many important ancient Welsh symbols because of its occurrence and depiction in the Mabinogion. These stories are the earliest compilation of eleven Welsh tales handed down orally for centuries. While they weren’t written down until the Middle Ages, the stories go much farther back, as the   beliefs and mythology   present in their content clearly predate Christianity.

Twrch Trwyth is a monster boar that appears in the Mabinogion. It was first mentioned in Historia Brittonum, a story about British history from the 9th century. “Twrch Trwyth” means “the Boar Trwyth” in Welsh. Trwyth was once a prince. He was cursed and turned into a monstrous boar with venomous bristles covering his body.   

Another reference to boar appears in the third branch of the Mabinogion. In the story of Pryderi and Manawydan, a shining white boar leads a hunting party into a trap in the Otherworld. 

The Oak Tree 

The oak was the most sacred tree to the Celts. They believed it was a gateway to the Otherworld and viewed it as a symbol of strength, endurance, and wisdom. The Druids, who were the Celts’ priests and scholars, paid particular reverence to the oak tree. While we don’t know the exact origins of the word “Druid,” it is believed to come from the old Irish-Gaelic word for oak tree, which was “doire” and meant “wisdom.” 

This noble tree appears in   the Mabinogion   in the Story of Math. When Lleu Llaw Gyffes is struck with a spear, he transforms into an eagle and perches on an oak tree until he is rescued and turns back into a human. 

The Celtic Tree of Life symbol shows an oak tree with its branches reaching towards the sky and a network of roots beneath the earth. An intricate weaving of Celtic knots often encircles the tree and connects the “above” to the “below.” While the precise meaning the Celts had for the Tree of Life is debatable, it may be showing the connection between the earth and the heavens. It also shows the repeating cycle of birth, life, and death. 

Although the Tree of Life was a powerful symbol to the Celts in Wales, it predates them, and many cultures used it. Its origins go back to ancient Mesopotamia. The oldest Celtic Tree of Life ever found dates back to the Bronze Age. As for where the Celts adopted the ancient symbol, they may have borrowed it from the Norse culture. 

Old Welsh Symbols

Other important Welsh symbols you may recognize are not necessarily ancient, but they have been with us for years and have become well-known emblems in Welsh culture.

The Leek

The leek became a symbol of Wales during the days of the Welsh kingdoms. There are several guesses as to why. According to one legend, King Cadwaladr of Gwynedd instructed his troops to wear leeks when engaging in combat with the Saxons. In another story, it was St. David who told the soldiers to put the plants in their helmets.

Another legend describes Edward the Black Prince’s victory over the French at the Battle of Crécy in 1346. In a field of leeks, the Welsh archers faced off against the French. As a reminder, the Welsh started wearing leeks in their caps on St. David’s Day every year.

The Daffodil

Compared to the leek, the daffodil is a newcomer on the scene. Wales had a surge in daffodil popularity during World War I thanks to the support of Welshman David Lloyd George. He was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom at the time. According to several media stories, he proposed that the daffodil be adopted as the Welsh national symbol. He also wore the flower to the Prince of Wales’ 1911 investiture (a formal ceremonial conferring a rank). The article “ Why is the daffodil a symbol of Wales? ” goes into detail about this bright yellow flower and how it was adopted as an emblem of Wales.

The Welsh Harp

Harps have been played in Wales as early as the 11th century. However, the national instrument, the triple harp (with three rows of strings instead of one), arrived in Cymru from Italy during the 1600s. A harp with this triple-string design became known as the “Welsh Harp.” Although other areas of Britain lost interest in the instrument by the 18th century, it thrived in Wales. The eisteddfodau (festivals) of music and poetry have been the perfect way for harpists to keep the love of the instrument alive.

Ancient Welsh symbols remind us of a powerful and unbreakable connection to the land and nature, and the resilient people descended from a turbulent yet vibrant past. The strength of the Celts lives on in the proud spirit and culture of the modern Welsh.